A. Motions and Forces
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1. Objects change their motion only when a net force is applied. Laws of motion are used to calculate precisely the effects of forces on the motion of objects. The magnitude of the change in motion can be calculated using the relationship F = ma, which is independent of the nature of the force. Whenever one object exerts force on another, a force equal in magnitude and opposite in direction is exerted on the first object.
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a. Trace the historical development of the understanding of forces including the contributions of Galileo, Newton, Franklin, and Coulomb. (H, N)
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b. Describe the motion of an object in terms of Newton’s three laws of motion.
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c. Solve uniformly accelerated, linear motion problems quantitatively and graphically.
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d. Generate and interpret graphs of linear motion.
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e. Cite evidence to justify the use of auto safety devices, including seat belts, air bags, bumpers and head rests, in terms of Newton’s laws. (P, T)
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2. Gravitation is a universal force that each mass exerts on any other mass. The strength of the gravitational attractive force between two masses is proportional to the masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
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a. Describe quantitative changes in gravitational attraction in terms of changes in distances between masses.
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b. Describe quantitative changes in gravitational attraction in terms of changes in the masses.
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3. The electric force is a universal force that exists between any two charged objects. Opposite charges attract while like charges repel. The strength of the force is proportional to the charges, and, as with gravitation, inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Between any two charged particles, electric force is vastly greater than the gravitational force. Most observable forces such as those exerted by a coiled spring or friction may be traced to electric forces acting between atoms and molecules.
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a. Demonstrate the interactions of like and unlike charges.
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b. Describe changes in electrostatic attraction in terms of changes in distances between two point charges. (NOTE: May consider this as too difficult for all learners -- exit exam.)
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c. Describe changes in electrostatic attraction in terms of changes in the charges.
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d. Compare the magnitudes of electrical and gravitational forces.
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e. Discuss the role of static electricity in disruptions and damage to electrical devices. (N, P, T)
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4. Electricity and magnetism are two aspects of a single electromagnetic force. Moving electric charges produce magnetic forces, and moving magnets produce electric forces. These effects help students to understand electric motors and generators.
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a. Describe how moving electrical charges produce magnetic fields.
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b. Describe how moving magnets produce electrical fields.
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c. Compare and contrast electrical motors and electrical generators in terms of energy transfers. (N, T)
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d. Examine the effects of the advent of electricity on individuals and society. (H, N, P, T)
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5. Analyze electrical circuits that obey Ohm’s Law. (Not an NSES standard)
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a. Construct and schematically diagram simple series circuits and parallel circuits.
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b. Use an electric meter to measure the voltage and resistance. (T)
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c. Compare and contrast series and parallel circuits.
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d. Perform calculations using Ohm’s Law. e. Explain how fuses, surge protectors, and breakers function. (T)
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B. Conservation of Energy and the Increase in Disorder
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1. The total energy of the universe is constant. Energy can be transferred by collisions in chemical and nuclear reactions, by light waves and other radiations, and in many other ways. However, it can never be destroyed. As these transfers occur, the matter involved becomes steadily less ordered.
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a. Examine and describe transformations between potential and kinetic energies and other forms of energy.
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b. State quantitative relationships between energy, work, power, and efficiency.
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c. Cite or identify examples of how the disorder of matter changes with energy changes. (N)
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2. All energy can be considered to be either kinetic energy, which is the energy of motion; potential energy, which depends on relative position; or energy contained by a field, such as electromagnetic waves.
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a. Classify energy types as potential, kinetic, or electromagnetic.
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3. Heat consists of random motion and the vibrations of atoms, molecules, and ions. The higher the temperature, the greater the atomic or molecular motion.
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a. Predict and measure the effects of varying the temperature, pressure, and volume of gases. (N)
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b. Assess particle motion and distance as they relate to temperature and phase changes.
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c. Assess the hazards of handling and storing pressurized gases. (P, T)
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4. Everything tends to become less organized and less orderly over time. Thus, in all energy transfers, the overall effect is that the energy is spread out uniformly. Examples are the transfer of energy from hotter to cooler objects by conduction, radiation, or convection and the warming of our surroundings when we burn fuels.
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a. Compare and contrast the environmental impact of power plants that use fossil fuels, water, and nuclear energy to produce electricity. (P, T)
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C. Interactions of Energy and Matter
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1. Waves, including sound and seismic waves, waves on water, and light waves, have energy and can transfer energy when they interact with matter.
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a. Identify and show relationships among wave characteristics such as velocity, period, frequency, amplitude, phase, and wavelength.
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b. Compare and contrast models of longitudinal and transverse waves.
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c. Identify examples of the wave behaviors of reflection, refraction, diffraction, interference, polarization, and Doppler effect.
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d. Compare light and sound in terms of wave models.
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e. Distinguish between the electromagnetic spectrum, seismic waves, water waves and sound waves based on their properties and behaviors.
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f. Describe the energy of a wave in terms of amplitude and frequency.
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g. Apply wave behavior to health issues such as skin cancer, cataracts, medical diagnostics, and treatment. (P, T)
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h. Apply wave behavior to communication issues such as cellular phones, satellites, and animal communication. (P, T)
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i. Apply wave behavior to optical and sonic devices such as optic fibers and motion detectors. (P, T)
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2. Electromagnetic waves result when a charged object is accelerated or decelerated. Electromagnetic waves include radio waves (the longest wavelength), microwaves, infrared radiation (radiant heat), visible light, ultraviolet radiation, x-rays, and gamma rays. The energy of electromagnetic waves is carried in packets whose magnitude is inversely proportional to the wavelength.
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a. Compare and contrast the parts of the electromagnetic spectrum in terms of energy.
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3. Each kind of atom or molecule can gain or lose energy only in particular discrete amounts and thus can absorb and emit light only at wavelengths corresponding to these amounts. These wavelengths can be used to identify the substance.
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a. Describe how the absorbing and releasing of energy by electrons produces light.
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b. Explain that each element has its own configuration of electrons and has a unique line spectrum that can be used to identify that element.
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c. Discuss the application of emitted colors by certain substances in such areas as fireworks and light sources. (P,T)
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4. In some materials, such as metals, electrons flow easily, whereas in insulating materials such as glass they can hardly flow at all. Semiconducting materials have intermediate behavior. At low temperatures some materials become superconductors and offer no resistance to the flow of electrons.
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a. Compare insulators, conductors, and semiconductors.
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b. Describe the conditions under which superconductivity exists.
(H, P, T)
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